Svjetski znanstvenici apeliraju

Uskogrudni fokus na BDP Europi donosi ekonomsku nestabilnost

Foto: Sanjin Strukic/Pixsell
Uskogrudni fokus na BDP Europi donosi ekonomsku nestabilnost
17.09.2018.
u 08:05
Ako se aktualni trendovi nastave, u Europi za deset godina neće biti rasta, skrbi, što stvara podjele u društvu, zabrinuti su stručnjaci.
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U posljednjih sedam desetljeća rast BDP-a bio je primarni ekonomski cilj europskih zemalja. No, kako su rasla gospodarstva, rastao je i negativan utjecaj na okoliš. Sada prelazimo granice planetarne stabilnosti i gospodarska se aktivnost ni približno dovoljno ne odvaja od korištenja resursa i zagađenja.

Rješavanje društvenih problema u europskim zemljama danas ne zahtijeva više rasta, nego pravedniju raspodjelu dohotka i bogatstva koje već imamo, poručilo je više od 200 uglednih svjetskih i europskih znanstvenika u pismu kojim zahtijevaju da Europa odustane od fiksacije na rast, uoči ovotjedne konferencije Post-Growth 2018. u Bruxellesu, na kojoj će se u Europskom parlamentu to prvi put nametnuti kao tema. Inicijatori dolaze iz pet parlamentarnih klubova, a među potpisnicima je i nekoliko hrvatskih znanstvenika: dr.sc. Branko Ančić, dr.sc. Marija Brajdić Vuković i dr.sc Danijela Dolenec. Duboko zabrinuti stručnjaci upozoravaju da je rast sve teže postići zbog opadanja koristi od produktivnosti, zasićenosti tržišta i ekološke degradacije.

Potkopavanje demokracije

Ako se aktualni trendovi nastave, u Europi za deset godina možda više uopće neće biti rasta. Trenutačno se on potiče omogućavanjem većeg duga, zanemarivanjem propisa o zaštiti okoliša, produljenjem radnog vremena i rezanjem socijalne skrbi – pišu znanstvenici te dodaju da agresivna usredotočenost na rast pod svaku cijenu stvara podjele u društvu i ekonomsku nestabilnost te potkopava demokraciju. Dobra je vijest da se u civilnom društvu i akademskoj zajednici pojavio pokret odrasta – poručuju.

Pojam „odrast“ u globalnom se pojmovniku sreće i pod nazivima „décroissance“, „Postwachstum“, „steady-state“ ili „doughnut economics“, „prosperitet bez rasta“; globalna inicijativa Wellbeing Economies Alliance (WE-All) povezuje ove pokrete, a europska istraživačka mreža razvija nove ekološke makroekonomske modele koji pokazuju da je moguće poboljšati kvalitetu života, obnoviti prirodnu ravnotežu, smanjiti nejednakost i osigurati smislene poslove bez potrebe za rastom BDP-a.

Neke od predloženih promjena uključuju ograničenja korištenja resursa, progresivno oporezivanje i postupno skraćivanje radnog vremena. Korištenje resursa moglo bi se ograničiti uvođenjem poreza na ugljik, a prihod vratiti kao dividenda za sve ili koristiti za financiranje socijalnih programa – objašnjavaju.

Ništa bez partnerstva

Predlažu uvođenje temeljnog i maksimalnog dohotka te korištenje novih tehnologija za skraćivanje radnog vremena i poboljšanje kvalitete života, umjesto za otpuštanja i povećanje profita privilegirane manjine. Konkretno traže: osnivanje povjerenstva za budućnost s odrastom u Europskom parlamentu, uključenje alternativnih indikatora koji mjere utjecaj na dobrobit građana u makroekonomski okvir EU, pretvaranje Pakta o stabilnosti i rastu (SGP) u Pakt o stabilnosti i dobrobiti (SGP je skup pravila kojima je cilj ograničavanje državnih deficita i državnog duga, op.a.) te uspostavu ministarstva gospodarske tranzicije u svakoj državi članici, usmjerenog na ljudsko i ekološko blagostanje.


– Rast, sam po sebi, kao rješenje oskudice i kreator blagostanja oduvijek je bio varka za koncentraciju bogaćenja. Za svaki dolar koji dobijemo mi, oni dobiju dva, a ukupni troškovi prebace se na prirodu koja ponajprije održava, hrani i odijeva, najslabije – komentira Mladen Domazet s Instituta za političku ekologiju, jedan od 10-ak znanstvenika u Hrvatskoj koji se izravno bave temom odrasta. Domazet je diplomirao fiziku i filozofiju na Oxfordu i doktorirao filozofiju znanosti na Filozofskom fakultetu u Zagrebu. Smatra da je vrijeme da radikalno promijenimo način na koji ostvarujemo i dijelimo dobrobit, te da se Hrvatska itekako može razvijati odrastno, ponajprije lokaliziranjem proizvodnje i potrošnje najbitnijih dobara, poput hrane, uz usmjeravanje društvenih viškova na zajedničku dobrobit: za kvalitetno i dostupno obrazovanje i zdravstvenu zaštitu za sve.

Ali Hrvatska to ne može sama: potrebna su joj europska partnerstva za priskrbljivanje resursa i dobara, oprost duga i održavanje što veće raznolikosti da nam život ne bude monoton, patrijarhalan i siv – zaključuje Domazet.

Potpisnice i potpisnici:

Dr Dan O'Neill, Associate Professor, University of Leeds, UK

Dr Federico Demaria, Researcher, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain

Dr Giorgos Kallis, Professor, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain

Dr Kate Raworth, Author of ‘Doughnut Economics’, UK

Dr Tim Jackson, Professor, University of Surrey, UK

Dr Jason Hickel, Lecturer, Goldsmiths, University of London, UK

Dr Lorenzo Fioramonti, Professor, University of Pretoria, South Africa 

Dr Marta Conde, President of Research & Degrowth, Spain

Dr Kevin Anderson, Deputy Director, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, UK

Dr Saskia Sassen, Professor of Sociology, Columbia University, USA

Dr David Graeber, Professor, London School of Economics, UK

Dr Ann Pettifor, Director, Policy Research in Macroeconomics (PRIME), UK

Dr Serge Latouche, Université Paris Sud, France

Dr Kate Pickett, Professor, University of York, UK

Dr Susan George, President of the Transnational Institute-TNI, Netherlands 

Dr Joan Martinez Alier, Professor, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Catalonia

Dr Juan Carlos Monedero Fernández, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain

Dr Dominique Méda, Professor, University Paris Dauphine, France 

Dr Ian Gough, Visiting Professor, London School of Economics, UK

Dr Lourdes Beneria, Professor Emerita, Cornell University, USA

Dr Inge Røpke, Professor, Aalborg University, Denmark 

Dr Niko Paech, Professor, University of Siegen, Germany

Dr Jean Gadrey, Professor, University of Lille, France

Dr Nadia Johanisova, Lecturer, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic 

Dr Wolfgang Sachs, Research Director Emeritus, Wuppertal Institut, Germany

Dr Stefania Barca, Senior Researcher, Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Portugal 

Dr Gilbert Rist, Emeritus Professor, Graduate Institute of International and Development  Studies, Switzerland

Dr György Pataki, Professor, Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary

Dr Simone D'Alessandro, Professor, University of Pisa, Italy

Dr Iñigo Capellán-Pérez, Researcher, University of Valladolid, Spain

Dr Amaia Pérez Orozco, Researcher, Colectiva XXK, Spain

Dr Max Koch, Professor, Lund University, Sweden

Dr Fabrice Flipo, Professor, Institut Mines Télécom-BS et LCSP Paris 7 Diderot, France 

Dr Matthias Schmelzer, Researcher, University of Jena and Konzeptwerk Neue Ökonomie,  Germany

Dr Óscar Carpintero, Associate Professor, University of Valladolid, Spain 

Dr Hubert Buch-Hansen, Associate Professor, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark 

Dr Christos Zografos, Pompeu Fabra University, Spain

Dr Tereza Stöckelová, Associate Professor, Institute of Sociology of the Czech Academy of  Sciences, Czech Republic 

Dr Alf Hornborg, Professor, Lund University, Sweden 

Dr Eric Clark, Professor, Lund University, Sweden

Dr Miklós Antal, Researcher, University of Leeds, UK

Dr Jordi Roca Jusmet, Professor, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain 

Dr Philippe Defeyt, Chairman, Institute for Sustainable Development, Belgium

Dr Erik Swyngedouw, Professor, University of Manchester, UK

Dr Christian Kerschner, Assistant Professor, Modul University Vienna, Austria

Dr Agata Hummel, Assistant Professor, University of Adam Mickiewicz, Poland

Dr Frank Moulaert, Emeritus Professor, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

Dr Frank Adler, Researcher, Brandenburg-Berlin Institute for Social Scientific Research,  Germany

Dr Janne I. Hukkinen, Professor, University of Helsinki, Finland 

Dr Jorge Riechmann, Professor, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain 

Samuel Martín-Sosa Rodríguez, Responsable de Internacional, Ecologistas en Acción, Spain 

Dr John Barry, Professor, Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland

Dr Linda Nierling, Senior Scientist, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany 

Dr Ines Omann, Senior Researcher, Austrian Foundation for Development Research, Austria

Dr Hug March, Associate Professor, Universitat Oberta de Catalunya, Spain

Dr Jakub Kronenberg, Associate Professor, University of Lodz, Poland Yayo Herrero, Miembro del Foro de Transiciones, Spain 

Dr Isabelle Anguelovski, Professor, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain

Dr François Schneider, Researcher, Research & Degrowth, France

Dr Vasilis Kostakis, Senior Researcher, Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia 

Dr Enric Tello, Professor, University of Barcelona, Spain 

Dr Andrew Sayer, Professor, Lancaster University, UK

Dr Kate Soper, Emerita Professor, London Metropolitan University, UK

Dr Klaus Hubacek, Professor, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Austria

Dr Brent Bleys, Assistant Professor, Ghent University, Belgium

Dr Jill Jäger, Independent Scholar, Vienna, Austria

Dr Mauro Gallegati, Professor, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Italy

Dr Peadar Kirby, Professor Emeritus, University of Limerick, Ireland

Dr Inés Marco, Researcher, University of Barcelona, Spain 

Dr Ivan Murray Mas, Assistant Lecturer, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Spain

Dr Alexandros Kioupkiolis, Assistant Professor, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Dr Aurore Lalucq, Co-Director, Veblen Institute, France 

Dr Gaël Plumecocq, Researcher, French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), France

Dr David Soto Fernández, Associate Professor, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Spain

Dr Christian Kimmich, Researcher, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic 

Dr Giacomo D'Alisa, Researcher, Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Portugal 

Dr Seth Schindler, Senior Lecturer, University of Manchester, UK

Dr Philippe Roman, Researcher, ICHEC Brussels Management School, Belgium

Dr Lorenzo Pellegrini, Associate Professor, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands 

Dr Erik Gómez-Baggethun, Professor, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway

Dr Tommaso Luzzati, Assistant Professor, University of Pisa, Italy 

Dr Christoph Gran, ZOE Institute for Future Fit Economies, Germany

Dr Tor A. Benjaminsen, Professor, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway 

Dr Barry McMullin, Professor, Dublin City University, Ireland

Dr Edwin Zaccai, Professor, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium 

Dr Jens Friis Lund, Professor, University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Dr Pierre Ozer, Researcher, Université de Liège, Belgium

Dr Louison Cahen-Fourot, Researcher, Institute for Ecological Economics,  Wirtschaftsuniversität Vienna, Austria

Dr Tommaso Rondinella, Researcher, Italian National Institute of Statistics, Italy

Dr Julia Steinberger, Associate Professor, University of Leeds, UK

Dr Andrew Fanning, Marie Curie Research Fellow, University of Leeds, UK

Jose Luis Fdez Casadevante Kois, Miembro del Foro Transiciones, Spain 

Dr Seema Arora-Jonsson, Professor, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden

Dr Astrid Agenjo Calderón, Lecturer, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Spain

Dr Tom Bauler, Professor, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Dr Gregers Andersen, Independent Researcher, Denmark 

Dr Peter Söderbaum, Professor Emeritus, Mälardalen University, Sweden

Dr Lourenzo Fernandez Priero, Professor, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Dr John R Porter, Emeritus Professor, University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Dr François Thoreau, Senior Researcher, University of Liege, France 

Mariagiulia Costanzo Talarico, Researcher, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Spain

Dr Maria Nikolaidi, Senior Lecturer, University of Greenwich, UK

Dr Ekaterina Chertkovskaya, Lecturer, Lund University, Sweden

Dr Stefan Gaarsmand Jacobsen, Assistant Professor, University of Roskilde, Denmark

Dimitar Sabev, Researcher, University of National and World Economy, Bulgaria 

Dr Mladen Domazet, Research Director, Institute for Political Ecology, Croatia

Dr Hans Diefenbacher, Professor, University of Heidelberg, Germany 

Dr Marco Armiero, Director of the Environmental Humanities Laboratory, Royal Institute of  Technology, Sweden

Dr Irene Ring, Professor, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany

Dr Christine Bauhardt, Professor, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany 

Dr Dominique Bourg, Professor, University of Lausanne, Switzerland

Dr Tomas Ryska, Lecturer, University of Economics, Czech Republic 

Dr Filka Sekulova, Researcher, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain 

Dr Andrej Lukšič, Associate Professor, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Dr Adrian Smith, Professor, University of Sussex, UK

Dr Serenella Iovino, Professor, Università di Torino, Italy

Dr Helga Kromp-Kolb, Professor, University of Renewable Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Dr Roberto De Vogli, Associate Professor, University of Padova, Italy 

Dr Danijela Dolenec, Assistant Professor, University of Zagreb, Croatia 

Dr Alexandra Köves, Senior Lecturer, Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary

Dr Antoine Bailleux, Professor, Université Saint-Louis - Bruxelles, Belgium

Dr Christof Mauch, Director, Rachel Carson Centre for Environment and Society, Germany 

Ajda Pistotnik, Independent Researcher, EnaBanda, Slovenia

Dr Branko Ančić, Researcher, Institute for Social Research for Social Research in Zagreb,  Croatia

Dr Marija Brajdic Vukovic, Assistant Professor, University of Zagreb, Croatia 

Dr Manuel González de Molina, Professor, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Spain

Dr Kye Askins, Reader, University of Glasgow, UK

Dr Carlos de Castro Carranza, Profesor Titular de Física Aplicada, Universidad de Valladolid,  Spain

Dr Annika Pissin, Researcher, Lund University, Sweden 

Dr Eva Fraňková, Assistant Professor, Masaryk University, Czech Republic 

Dr Helga Kromp-Kolb, Professor, University of Renewable Resources and Life Sciences,  Vienna, Austria

Dr Lidija Živčič, Senior Expert, Focus, Association for Sustainable Development, Slovenia

Dr Martin Pogačar, Research Fellow, ZRC SAZU, Slovenia

Dr Peter Nielsen, Associate Professor, Roskilde University, Denmark

Yaryna Khmara, Researcher, University of Lodz, Poland

Dr Ika Darnhofer, Associate Professor, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences,  Austria

Dr Isabelle Cassiers, Professor, Université catholique de Louvain, Belgium 

Dr Mihnea Tanasescu, Researcher, Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) and Vrije  Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium 

Dr Daniel Hausknost, Assistant Professor, Institute for Social Change and Sustainability, 

Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria 

Dr Christoph Görg, Professor, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna,  Austria

Dr Andreas Novy, Professor, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria 

Dr Fikret Adaman, Professor, Boğaziçi University, Turkey 

Dr Bengi Akbulut, Assistant Professor, Concordia University, Canada 

Dr Kevin Maréchal, Professor, Université de Liège, Belgium.

Dr Anke Schaffartzik, Researcher, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain

Dr Milena Buchs, Associate Professor, University of Leeds, UK

Dr Jean-Louis Aillon, Researcher, University of Genova, Italy 

Dr Melanie Pichler, Researcher, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Austria

Dr Helmut Haberl, Associate Professor, Institute of Social Ecology, University of Natural  Resources and Life Sciences, Austria

Dr Julien-François Gerber, Assistant Professor, International Institute of Social Studies,  Netherlands

Dr John Holten-Andersen, Associate Professor, Aalborg University, Denmark 

Theresa Klostermeyer, Officer for Sustainability and Social Change, German League for 

Nature, Animal and Environmental Protection, Germany

Dr Lyla Mehta, Professor, Institute of Development Studies, UK

Dr Geneviève Azam, Professor, Université Jean Jaurès, France

Dr Hermann E. Ott, Professor, University of Sustainable Development Eberswalde, Germany

Dr Angelika Zahrnt, Professor, Institute for Ecological Economic Research, Germany 

Dr Melissa Leach, Director, Institute of Development Studies (IDS), University of Sussex, UK

Dr Irmi Seidl, Assistant Professor, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Switzerland 

Dr Shilpi Srivastava, Research Fellow, Institute of Development Studies, UK

Dr Elgars Felcis, Researcher, University of Latvia, Chairman of Latvian Permaculture  Association, Latvia

Dr Tilman Santarius, Professor, Technische Universität Berlin and Einstein Center Digital  Futures, Germany 

Nina Treu, Coordinator of Konzeptwerk Neue Ökonomie, Germany

Dr Laura Horn, Associate Professor, Roskilde University, Denmark Jennifer Hinton, Researcher, Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, Sweden

Dr Friedrich Hinterberger, President, Sustainable Europe Research Institute, Austria

Dr Miriam Lang, Assistant Professor, Universidad Andina Simón Bolivar, Ecuador

Dr Susse Georg, Professor, Aalborg University, Denmark

Dr Silvio Cristiano, Researcher, Università degli Studi di Napoli 'Parthenope' & Università Ca'  Foscari Venezia, Italy

Dr Petr Jehlička, Senior Lecturer, Open University, UK

Dr Maja Göpel, Professor, Leuphana University, Member Club of Rome, Germany 

Dr Geraldine Thiry, Associate Professor, ICHEC Brussels Management School, Belgium 

Dr Olivier Malay, Researcher, University of Louvain, Belgium

Dr Richard Lane, Researcher, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht  University, Netherlands 

Dr Laura Centemeri, Researcher, National Centre for Scientific Research, France

Dr Stephan Lessenich, Professor, Ludwig Maximilians University, Germany

Timothée Parrique, Researcher, Stockholm University, Sweden 

Dr Ludivine Damay, Lecturer, Université libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Dr Janis Brizga, Researcher, University of Latvia, Latvia

Dr Claudio Cattaneo, Associate Professor, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain

Dr Miquel Ortega Cerdà, Advisor, Barcelona City Council

Dr Olivier De Schutter, Professor, Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium 

Dr Annalisa Colombino, Assistant Professor, Institute of Geography and Regional Sciences,  University of Graz, Austria

Dr Philip von Brockdorff, Head of the Department of Economics, University of Malta, Malta

Dr Sarah Cornell, Senior Researcher, Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University,  Sweden

Dr Ruth Kinna, Professor of Political Theory, Loughborough University, UK

Francesco Gonella, Professor, Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems,  Università Ca' Foscari Venezia, Italy 

Orsolya Lazanyi, Researcher, Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary 

Dr Eva Friman, Director at Swedesd, Uppsala University, Sweden

Dr Pernilla Hagbert, Researcher, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden

Vincent Liegey, Co-Author of "A Degrowth Project", Hungary 

Dr Manlio Iofrida, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy and Communication,  University of Bologna, Italy 

Dr Mauro Bonaiuti, Lecturer, University of Turin, Italy

Dr Marco Deriu, Researcher, University of Parma, Italy

Dr Eeva Houtbeckers, Postdoctoral Researcher, Aalto University, Finland 

Dr Guy Julier, Professor, Aalto University, Finland 

Dr Anna Kaijser, Lecturer, Linköping University, Sweden

Dr Petter Næss, Professor, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway 

Dr Irina Velicu, Researcher, Center for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Portugal

Dr Ulrich Brand, Professor, University of Vienna, Austria

Dr Christina Plank, Researcher, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Austria

Dr Karolina Isaksson, Senior Research Leader, Swedish National Road and Transport  Research Institute, Sweden

Dr Jin Xue, Associate Professor, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway

Dr Rasmus Steffansen, Researcher, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway

Dr Irmak Ertör, Researcher, Institute of Environmental Science and Technology,  Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain

Dr Maria Hadjimichael, Researcher, Department of Social and Political Sciences, University  of Cyprus, Cyprus

Dr Carlo Aall, Researcher in Societal Transformation and Climate Change, Western Norway  Research Institute, Norway 

Dr Claudiu Craciun, Lecturer, National School of Political Studies and Administration  (SNSPA), Romania

Dr Tuuli Hirvilammi, Researcher, University of Jyväskylä, Finland

Dr Tuula Helne, Senior Researcher, The Social Insurance Institution of Finland, Finland 

Davide Biolghini, Researcher, Rete italiana Economia Solidale (RES), Italy 

Dr Pasi Heikkurinen, Lecturer, University of Leeds, UK

Dr Anne Tittor, Researcher, Junior Research Group Bioeconomy & Inequalities, University of  Jena, Germany 

Dr Dennis Eversberg, Researcher, DFG Research Group on Postgrowth Societies,  University of Jena, Germany 

Dr Herman Stål, Lecturer, Umea School of Business, Economics and Statistics, Sweden

Dr Hervé Corvellec, Professor, Lund University, Sweden

Dr Anna Heikkinen, Researcher, University of Tampere, Finland

Dr Karl Bonnedahl, Researcher, Umea University, Sweden

Dr Meri Koivusalo, Professor, University of Tampere, Finland

Dr Martin Fritz, Researcher in Sociology, Bielefeld University, Germany

Dr Daniel Bergquist, Researcher, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Sweden

Dr Yuri Kazepov, Professor, University of Vienna, Austria

Dr Salvador Pueyo, Researcher, Universitat de Barcelona, Catalonia

Dr Lars Rydén, Professor, Uppsala University, Sweden 

Patrick ten Brink, Director of EU Policy, European Environmental Bureau, Belgium

Dr Ebba Lisberg Jensen, Associate Professor, Malmö University, Sweden

Dr Alevgul H. Sorman, Researcher, Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3), Spain

Dr Aram Ziai, Professor, University of Kassel, Germany 

Dr Panos Petridis, Researcher, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU),  Austria

Dr Gary Dymski, Professor, University of Leeds, UK

VIŠE OD 20% TERITORIJA POD OKUPACIJOM

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